Computer Inventors and their Inventions

Computer invention has empowered the human civilization in a way that no other invention has ever done. And what should I say about the computer inventors and their inventions? These geniuses have been the most gifted people to the world community who transformed the way we live and work today. Inventors of computers have been many and believe me, you simply can't say that a single person contributed in the growth and development of this phenomenal technology. 

If you're wondering what are the various inventions and inventors of computer that have been milestones in the computer history, then you've got to understand that it all began close to 5000 years ago. No doubt, computer inventions that date back to 2000 years ago can't be compared with the Apple computers of today's age, but we simply can't neglect the importance of even a wooden Abacus machine that laid the foundation of future computers. Information about various computer inventors and their inventions will prove you that a journey of thousand miles begins with a single step. Walk with me in the annals of computer history and enter into the latest 21st century, by knowing the rich legacy of computers.

Famous Computer Inventors and their Inventions: An Overview

Let me start with a small introduction to the evolution of computers as that will help you to understand things from closer angles. There is a whole lot of confusion as to who invented the computer. I will tell you that there is no fixed answer to this question as it completely depends on your definition of computers. Back, in 3000 B.C., when Abacus, the simple calculating device was introduced in China, it was said to be the foundation stone for the concept of modern-day computers. But now, can you even equate Abacus to super computers? Probably not. So, in essence, when was the first computer invented, is a very difficult question to answer. 

In fact, the extent and depth in different types of computers makes it more complex to find an answer to the question about popular computer inventors and their inventions. After Abacus, came in 1622 A.D., the slide rule, invented by William Oughtred, that was said to be another conceptual and thought provoking dimension to the information age development. Nevertheless, in this article, I have tried to give information about some of the most famous computer inventions and their inventors.

Charles Babbage: The Analytical Engine
Till my elementary school, I was aware of the fact that the "Father of the Computer," was Charles Babbage, who invented an analytical engine in 1822. However, as I grew up to study computer history, I found Babbage couldn't actually build the analytical engine but was only able to present it theoretically. His unfinished work was completed by scientists in 1930. His concept of analytical engine was quite similar to the concepts of modern-day computers that include subroutines and input devices. It certainly laid the foundation of modern-day computers. 

Alan Turing: The Turing Machine
Although, he did not design any computer, Alan Turing, an English mathematician and computer scientist has been one of the most influential personalities in the field of computer science. He provided a platform for formulating the basic concept of algorithm and destined the Turing machine, that was able to test the intelligence of a machine. In fact, he pioneered in the field of artificial intelligence. Today's, CAPTCHA code test on Internet and computers has evolved from Turing's ideas.

Konrad Zuse: The Z Series Computers
The German engineer, Konrad Zuse, in 1936, invented the first electrical binary programmable computer - the Z1. Z2 and Z3 were also introduced by Zuse in 1939 and 1941 respectively. Unfortunately, Zuse's efforts were destroyed during second world war. In the hall of fame of computer inventors and their inventions, Zuse's contributions still matter a lot.

John Vincent Atanasoff & Clifford Berry: Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC)
Developed in the war phase of 1942, Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) was the world's first fully electronic digital computer. Its inventors, John Vincent Atanasoff & Clifford Berry shared the relationship of a professor and a student. John was an America electronics engineer while Clifford his student.

The US Army: ENIAC
Financed by the US army and developed by scientists John Presper Eckert & John W. Mauchly, in 1946, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) is considered to be the first mainstream digital computer ever made. In fact ABC and ENIAC fought a legal battle till 1973, when ABC was finally declared to be the 1st digital computer. ENIAC was mainly built for US army research laboratory.

This was just a glimpse of computer inventors and their inventions. What followed in years after 1950 is an amazing history of computer development. Further developments in the computer field led to the invention of transistor (by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain & Wiliam Shockley in 1956), integrated circuits (1959) and the computer processors by the iconic Intel. Then came the brilliant Bill Gates and the legendary Steve Jobs who changed the computer history.

In fact, internet history is also an integral part of the history of computer development as both can only coexist. So hopefully, you got some idea about popular computer inventors and their inventions. You must have realized after reading this article that it is quite difficult to name any person for all computer growth. Computer development saga, in essence, is a magnificent example of impressive developments through re-invention, research, and innovation. Hence, naming many computer inventors and computer inventions individually was not possible in this article as all inventions are inseparably intertwined together.

Read more »

Who Built the First Computer

Today, our lives have become dependent on the computers. This computing machine have infiltrated almost every sector of human activity where routine and repetitious tasks can be handed over to the machines. Today, computers are so advanced that they are taking over delicate tasks from the humans such as surgery. For some people, it is important to know who built the first computer, the wonder machine of the 20th century. However, this task is not easy, because it is a matter under dispute over date of creation of first computer, name of its designer and inventor. Lets see who designed the first computer, who realized it for the first time and who was credited with the invention of the first computer.

Who Created the First Computer

Some people give credit to Charles Babbage, an English mathematician and inventor, for coming with the design of the first mechanical computer. In 1837, he introduced the idea of analytical machine which was successfully produced and tested in 1991.

Shifting through the information regarding the evolution of computers, you will find interesting as well as contradicting information about the topic at hand. In 1930, several groups were working to produce a machine that can perform automatic calculations and is programmable. The start of the second World War gave boost to these efforts. During this time, inventors such as, Alan Turing, at Bletchley Park, built many vacuum-tube based computing machines of Colossus series which were used to do calculations to break Hitler's communication codes. IBM's Mark I series which represents electromechanical computers also did wartime calculations at Harvard.

Konrad Zuse's, of Germany, came up with the series Z electromechanical computers. In 1941, Zuse built Z3 which used binary arithmetic and was controlled by programs. In 1998, Z3 was tested and found to be Turing complete i.e. a fully operational computer which used electromagnets.

Out of these efforts to harness machines to calculate the trajectories of the cannon shells, in 1946, came ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) which was hailed as the first true all-purpose electronic computer. Its principle inventors John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, were regarded, for a long time, as the inventors who made the first computer. ENIAC was a very big machine and it weighed almost 30-tons. It was complex machine and employed 19,000 vacuum tubes and 6,000 switches to do the calculations. By 1946 standards, its speed at addition of 5,000 numbers in a second, was unheard of and unmatched for. However, the initial model of ENIAC needed to be rewired to change its programming because of its inflexible architecture.

Who Built the First Computer

However, in 1971, during a court trial it was revealed that Dr. Atanasoff, a physics professor was the inventor who built the first computer in the world. Dr. Atanasoff built his electronic digital computer, in 1937, while he was working at Iowa State College in Ames, Iowa in order to solve problems in quantum mechanics. Dr. Atanasoff's computer could perform additions and subtractions. It incorporated hardware that supported two words (12-bit long) and used a logic unit based on seven triode tubes to communicate with the regenerative memory. The judge presiding the trial gave priority of invention to Dr. Atanasoff. One can depend on this verdict to answer questions such as who invented the first computer and when was the first computer invented.

More on Early Computers

In 1945, John von Neumann and others come up with a concept of stored-program computer. The concept aimed at creating a computer with an architecture that will allow for changing the program being executed in the computer without altering the wiring. It also explored the possibility of coming with programs that could manipulate its own instructions. In short, the John von Neumann and company aimed at imparting the flexibility to the computers and shaping its science to its present form and state.

In 1948, British came up with first working prototype, which confirmed with the Neumann design, in the form of Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM) which was also known as "Baby". However, the first computer to implement concept of stored program, i.e. Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC), was built at Cambridge University, in 1949. EDSAC was followed by EDVAC which truly replicated the computing machine described by John von Neumann's paper. The contribution made by the Neumann is tremendous as today's computers, however technologically advanced, use some form of stored-program architecture proposed by him.

Even though we know that the computers made their entry in this world in 1930s, it appears from the research that the man has chased the concept and tried to realize it for the last few thousand years. The results of his labors can be seen through the abacus, the slide rule and Astrolabe. Greeks, around 80 BC, used Antikythera mechanism which was a sort of an astronomical computer. Al-Jazari, in 1206, invented an astronomical clock which was known as the Castle clock and was used for the purpose of navigation. In the computer history, the Castle clock is considered to be the earliest programmable analog computer. 

Depending on which of the technologies you are supporting, the answer to who built the first computer varies. It also depends up on which type of computer you focus up on: mechanical, electromechanical or electronic. I am sure, after going through the information presented this article, you can easily answer who built the first computer and when.

Read more »

Advantages of Computers

The present global age is the consequence of the computer age. A computer is an electronic device that stores and processes data, according to a list of instructions. It allows a user to manipulate data easily. The speed of performance of a computer is incomparable. The computer and Internet have affected our way of working, communicating, playing and also writing. In fact, computers are used in every aspect of life today.

Advantages of Computers

Because of the many advantages of a computer, it has become an important household item. A computer operated by an individual without any specific computer operator is called a personal computer (PC). A PC can be a desktop or a laptop computer and can be used at home or at office. As per the requirement of the user, software is installed in a PC. Let's discuss the advantages of computers.

One can write more effectively by means of a computer. There are tools like spelling and grammar checker, thesaurus and dictionary, installed in the computer. Thus, it takes less time to proofread a written document and also, there is no need to open up a dictionary book to look for meanings of words. Typing is much faster than writing on a paper. If there is a need for reorganizing the sentences or paragraphs, one can cut and paste and make the necessary changes. Thus, overall a computer allows the user to create documents, edit, print, and store them so that they can be retrieved later.

Using a computer, one can remain connected to the world through Internet. Internet is a network of computers that communicates via the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP). The World Wide Web (WWW) or simply web is a huge resource of information that can be accessed via the Internet. To mention a few of the resources, there are electronic mail (e-mail), file transferring and sharing, online chat, and gaming. The Internet allows people from around the world to share knowledge, ideas and experiences in any field. But, there are both advantages and disadvantages of Internet. 

E-mail is a method of communication used globally and is provided with a system of creating, storing and forwarding mails. It may consist of text messages with attachments of audio-visual clips. One can also download or upload files using the Internet. There are also facilities like online chatting available on the Internet. As compared to telephonic conversation, both e-mail and online chat are cost saving. Online gaming is another important resource of the WWW. Many online games are available, which are of common interest for any age group. In addition, one can read current news, check weather conditions, plan vacations and make hotel and travel reservations, find out about diseases and treatment methods, conduct transactions, learn about specific countries and their cultures, seek jobs, buy products, etc via the Internet.

Nowadays, computers are widely used for education and training purposes. In schools, computer education has been made compulsory to spread awareness about computers. As a matter of fact, computers have become a learning tool for children. Also, there are many universities that provide online degrees, which is very advantageous for those people staying in the remote areas and for the disabled. In fact, online education is one of the most flexible and convenient forms of learning. One can take the benefit of such online degree programs staying at home without the need of relocation. Computers are also used for training purposes. Many companies use them to train their staffs. 

However, in spite of the many advantages of computers, there are some disadvantages that cannot be ignored. The easy access to information via Internet has made students lazy in terms of their education since they are able to download information without exploring their topic of research. They also use computers for mathematical tables and calculations without actually solving the problems. Also, it is important for parents to keep a check on the browsing habits of their children as some websites are not meant for their viewing. Other disadvantages include identity theft and virus threat. Computers viruses are harmful to the systems and can be transferred from one computer system to another.

Read more »

Uses of Computer

What is a Computer?

A computer is an electronic device, which executes software programs. It consists of 2 parts-hardware and software . The computer processes input through input devices like mouse and keyboard. The computer displays output through output devices like color monitor and printer. The size of a computer varies considerably from very small to very big. The speed of computers also has a very large range. Computers have become indispensable in today's world. Millions of people use computers all over the world.

There are several uses of computers: -

• Word Processing - Word Processing software automatically corrects spelling and grammar mistakes. If the content of a document repeats you don't have to type it each time. You can use the copy and paste features. You can printout documents and make several copies. It is easier to read a word-processed document than a handwritten one. You can add images to your document.
• Internet - It is a network of almost all the computers in the world. You can browse through much more information than you could do in a library. That is because computers can store enormous amounts of information. You also have very fast and convenient access to information. Through E-Mail you can communicate with a person sitting thousands of miles away in seconds. There is chat software that enables one to chat with another person on a real-time basis. Video conferencing tools are becoming readily available to the common man.
• Digital video or audio composition - Audio or video composition and editing have been made much easier by computers. It no longer costs thousands of dollars of equipment to compose music or make a film. Graphics engineers can use computers to generate short or full-length films or even to create three-dimensional models. Anybody owning a computer can now enter the field of media production. Special effects in science fiction and action movies are created using computers.
• Desktop publishing - With desktop publishing, you can create page layouts for entire books on your personal computer.
• Computers in Medicine - You can diagnose diseases. You can learn the cures. Software is used in magnetic resonance imaging to examine the internal organs of the human body. Software is used for performing surgery. Computers are used to store patient data.
• Mathematical Calculations - Thanks to computers, which have computing speeds of over a million calculations per second we can perform the biggest of mathematical calculations.
• Banks - All financial transactions are done by computer software. They provide security, speed and convenience.
• Travel - One can book air tickets or railway tickets and make hotel reservations online.
• Telecommunications - Software is widely used here. Also all mobile phones have software embedded in them.
• Defense - There is software embedded in almost every weapon. Software is used for controlling the flight and targeting in ballistic missiles. Software is used to control access to atomic bombs.
• E-Learning - Instead of a book it is easier to learn from an E-learning software.
• Gambling-You can gamble online instead of going to a casino.
• Examinations-You can give online exams and get instant results. You can check your examination results online.
• Computers in Business - Shops and supermarkets use software, which calculate the bills. Taxes can be calculated and paid online. Accounting is done using computers. One can predict future trends of business using artificial intelligence software. Software is used in major stock markets. One can do trading online. There are fully automated factories running on software.
• Certificates - Different types of certificates can be generated. It is very easy to create and change layouts.
• ATM machines - The computer software authenticates the user and dispenses cash.
• Marriage - There are matrimonial sites through which one can search for a suitable groom or bride.
• News-There are many websites through which you can read the latest or old news.
• Classmates-There are many alumni websites through which you can regain contact with your classmates.
• Robotics - Robots are controlled by software.
• Washing Machines - They operate using software.
• Microwave Oven - They are operated by software.
• Planning and Scheduling - Software can be used to store contact information, generating plans, scheduling appointments and deadlines.
• Plagiarism - Software can examine content for plagiarism.
• Greeting Cards - You can send and receive greetings pertaining to different occasions.
• Sports - Software is used for making umpiring decisions. There are simulation software using which a sportsperson can practice his skills. Computers are also to identify flaws in technique.
• Airplanes - Pilots train on software, which simulates flying.
• Weather analysis - Supercomputers are used to analyze and predict weather.

Computers have leapfrogged the human society into another league. It is used in each and every aspect of human life. They will spearhead the human quest of eradicating social problems like illiteracy and poverty. It is difficult to imagine a world bereft of computers. This revolutionary technology is indeed a boon to the human race. May computers continue to shower their blessings to us.

Read more »

Different Types of Computers

A computer is one of the most brilliant inventions of mankind. Thanks to the computer technology, we were able to achieve an efficient storage and processing of data; we could rest our brains by employing computer memory capacities for storage of information. Owing to computers, we have been able speed up daily work, carry out critical transactions and achieve accuracy and precision in work. Computers of the earlier years were of the size of a large room and were required to consume huge amounts of electric power. However, with the advancing technology, computers have shrunk to the size of a small watch. Depending on the processing power and size of computers, they have been classified under various types. Let us look at the classification of computers.

Different types of Computers

Based on the operational principle of computers, they are categorized as analog computers and hybrid computers.

Analog Computers: These are almost extinct today. These are different from a digital computer because an analog computer can perform several mathematical operations simultaneously. It uses continuous variables for mathematical operations and utilizes mechanical or electrical energy.

Hybrid Computers: These computers are a combination of both digital and analog computers. In this type of computers, the digital segments perform process control by conversion of analog signals to digital ones.

Following are some of the other important types of computers.

Mainframe Computers: Large organizations use mainframes for highly critical applications such as bulk data processing and ERP. Most of the mainframe computers have the capacities to host multiple operating systems and operate as a number of virtual machines and can thus substitute for several small servers.

Microcomputers: A computer with a microprocessor and its central processing unit is known as a microcomputer. They do not occupy space as much as mainframes. When supplemented with a keyboard and a mouse, microcomputers can be called personal computers. A monitor, a keyboard and other similar input output devices, computer memory in the form of RAM and a power supply unit come packaged in a microcomputer. These computers can fit on desks or tables and serve as the best choices for single-user tasks.

Personal computers come in a variety of forms such as desktops, laptops and personal digital assistants. Let us look at each of these types of computers.

Desktops: A desktop is intended to be used on a single location. The spare parts of a desktop computer are readily available at relative lower costs. Power consumption is not as critical as that in laptops. Desktops are widely popular for daily use in workplaces and households.

Laptops: Similar in operation to desktops, laptop computers are miniaturized and optimized for mobile use. Laptops run on a single battery or an external adapter that charges the computer batteries. They are enabled with an inbuilt keyboard, touch pad acting as a mouse and a liquid crystal display. Its portability and capacity to operate on battery power have served as a boon for mobile users.

Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs): It is a handheld computer and popularly known as a palmtop. It has a touch screen and a memory card for storage of data. PDAs can also be effectively used as portable audio players, web browsers and smart phones. Most of them can access the Internet by means of Bluetooth or Wi-Fi communication.

Minicomputers: In terms of size and processing capacity, minicomputers lie in between mainframes and microcomputers. Minicomputers are also called mid-range systems or workstations. The term began to be popularly used in the 1960s to refer to relatively smaller third generation computers. They took up the space that would be needed for a refrigerator or two and used transistor and core memory technologies. The 12-bit PDP-8 minicomputer of the Digital Equipment Corporation was the first successful minicomputer.

Supercomputers: The highly calculation-intensive tasks can be effectively performed by means of supercomputers. Quantum physics, mechanics, weather forecasting, molecular theory are best studied by means of supercomputers. Their ability of parallel processing and their well-designed memory hierarchy give the supercomputers, large transaction processing powers.

Wearable Computers: A record-setting step in the evolution of computers was the creation of wearable computers. These computers can be worn on the body and are often used in the study of behavior modeling and human health. Military and health professionals have incorporated wearable computers into their daily routine, as a part of such studies. When the users' hands and sensory organs are engaged in other activities, wearable computers are of great help in tracking human actions. Wearable computers are consistently in operation as they do not have to be turned on and off and are constantly interacting with the user.

These were some of the different types of computers available today. Looking at the rate of the advancement in technology, we can definitely look forward to many more types of computers in the near future.

Read more »

When was the First Macintosh Computer Built

Macintosh, often known by its nickname Mac, is a brand name used for the line of personal computers developed and marketed by Apple Inc. You might want to ask me, "When was the first Macintosh computer built?" Well, the beginning of the Macintosh projects dates back to the late ‘70s. It was Jef Raskin, a human computer interface expert from America and an employee of Apple, who came up with the idea of an easy-to-use computer for common consumer use. The name Macintosh is derived from McIntosh, an apple cultivar popular in New England, United States and more importantly, Jef Raskin’s favorite apple variety!

In late 1979, Raskin began hiring engineers for his project of building an easy-to-use and low-cost computer. Bill Atkinson, an American computer engineer and employee of Apple, introduced Raskin to Burrell Smith, a service technician working with Apple Computer, who would later design the digital board for Macintosh. Raskin soon got together a team of engineers and technicians to develop the software and hardware for Macintosh. By the end of 1980, Burrell Smith came up with a board that used 68000 processor, operated at a speed of 8 MHz and supported a 384x256 pixel display. The board required less number of RAM chips, making it cost-effective. The final design of Mac used the QuickDraw picture language and interpreter and came with an expandable RAM. It featured a 512x342 pixel monochrome display. 

Steve Jobs, the co-founder of Apple, found this design promising and hence decided to focus on this project. Unfortunately, the views of Raskin conflicted with those of Jobs and Raskin left the project in 1981. The final Mac design is believed to have evolved from Job’s ideas more than from Raskin’s. Ironically, the man who conceptualized Macintosh was not a part of the project at the time of its successful completion.

In October 1983, the Macintosh 128k was announced. By January 1984, the first Macintosh was in the markets. It came packaged with MacWrite, a word processor application and MacPaint, a painting software program. The development continued through 1985 up to 1998. This period witnessed the rising popularity of Macintosh and also a decline in its growth. Microsoft and Intel dominated the computer market in the 1990s, causing a fall in the popularity of Apple. However, the return of Jobs, who had resigned from Apple in 1985 and the introduction of iMac, a series ofdesktop computers, which was a huge success, revived the popularity of Apple. This revival promised Macintosh, a bright future.

Read more »

Linux: History and Introduction

Linux is one of the popularly used operating systems and is a free software supporting open source development. Originally designed for Intel 80386 microprocessors, Linux now runs on a wide variety of computer architectures and has spread far and wide. 

Linux - History

Unix was the third operating system to CTSS, the first one followed by MULTICS. A team of programmers led by Prof. Fernando J. Corbato at the MIT Computation Center, wrote the CTSS, the first operating system supporting the concept of time-sharing. AT&T started working on the MULTICS operating system but had to leave the project as they were failing to meet deadlines. Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan at Bell Labs, used the ideas on the MULTICS project to develop the first version of Unix.

MINIX was a Unix-like system released by Andrew Tenenbaum. The source code was made available to the users but there were restrictions on the modification and distribution of the software. On August 25, 1991, Linus Torvalds, a second year computer engineering student studying in the University of Helsinki made an announcement that he was going to write an operating system. With an intent to replace MINIX, Torvalds started writing the Linux kernel. With this announcement of Torvalds, a success story had begun! Linux was previously dependent on the MINIX user space but with the introduction of the GNU GPL, the GNU developers worked towards the integration of Linux and the GNU components. 

Linux - Introduction

The Unix-like operating system that uses the Linux kernel is known as the Linux operating system. In 1991, Linus Torvalds came up with the Linux kernel. He started writing the Linux kernel after which, around 250 programmers contributed to the kernel code. Richard Stallman, an American software developer, who was a part of the GNU project, created the General Public License, under which Linux is distributed. The utilities and libraries of Linux come from the GNU operating system.

By the term 'free software', we mean that Linux can be copied and redistributed in the altered or unaltered form without many restrictions. Each recipient of the Linux software is entitled to obtain the human readable form of the software and a notice granting the person the permissions to modify its source code. In other words, the distribution of the Linux software implies the distribution of a free software license to its recipients. Linux supports open source development by which we mean that all its underlying source code can be freely modified, used and distributed. The open source method of development enables the users of the software to access its source code.

A Linux distribution is a project that manages the collection of Linux software and the installation of the OS. It includes the system software and the application software in the form of packages and the initial installation and configuration details. There are around 300 different Linux distributions. The most prominent of the Linux distributions include Red Hat, Fedora and Mandrake. Fedora Core came up after the ninth version of Red Hat Linux. Fedora Core is a rapidly updated Linux distribution. Most of the Linux distributions support a diverse range of programming languages. Most of them include Perl, Python, Ruby and other dynamic languages. Linux supports a number of Java virtual machines and development kits as also the C++ compilers.

Linux is a freely available OS based on the Linux kernel. It is an inexpensive and effective alternative to the UNIX programs and utilities. Its open source implementation enables any programmer to modify its code. Linux supports a multi-tasking and multi-user environment as also the copy-on-write functionality. The monolithic Linux kernel handles the process control, networking and the file system. Device drivers are integrated in the kernel. The Linux operating system is equipped with libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix shell and a windowing system. Linux supports both the command line as well and the graphical user interfaces. Linux is popularly used in servers and also with desktop computers, supercomputers, video games and embedded systems. I have always enjoyed working on the Linux platform, have you?

Read more »

ASCII Code: What does ASCII Stand For

ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. It is a form of character encoding that is based on the English alphabet. ASCII codes represent the text in computers and communication tools that handle text.

ASCII characters were developed from telegraphic codes. Work on developing the ASCII standard began in 1960. The first edition came up only in 1963. The standard underwent updates in 1967 and in 1986. The committee working on the development of the ASCII character set contemplated the use of a shift key functionality, which would allow them to build 6-bit representations of character symbols. By implementing the shift key functionality in their design, they were going to create some character codes that would determine which character code options to follow. However, the shift key function was discarded from the design and eight-bit codes were formulated. This also allowed the ASCII code design to support parity bits. Robert Berner, a computer scientist at IBM, was instrumental in the development of some features that were added to ASCII in its revised versions.

The ASCII character set is a collection of 33 non-printing characters, 94 printable characters and the space character that is not printable. The first 32 ASCII codes are reserved for control characters like the null characters, the characters for denoting start and end of text, the line feed character, the shift in and shift out characters as also the characters used for controlling devices. The other ASCII codes are allotted for actual printable character symbols. The ASCII code provides a mapping between digital bit patterns and characters, thus allowing devices to communicate with each other.

To know many more buzzwords of the world of computing, you must go through this computer glossary.

By Manali Oak

Read more »

Intel Microprocessor History

Learning about Intel microprocessor history will teach you a lot about how computer processors have evolved over the years, and how we have reached the advanced stage of processors today. Intel Corporation was founded in July 1968, and today it is the world's biggest semiconductor chip manufacturer. The proportion of personal computers that run on Intel chips today is simply mind-boggling, to say the least. The company is based in Santa Clare, California and the name was coined as an abbreviation of Integrated Electronics Corporation. 

The First Step

Intel 4004 was the world's first single chip microprocessor, and was created by Intel in November 1971. Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin and Stan Mazor are the people who came up with this amazing chip for the time, which combined the CPU, the memory, and the input output ports of a computer on to one single chip, which was astoundingly small for the time. This was only the beginning of the long history of computer processors.

The need for the 4004 chip came up in 1969, when a Japanese client called Busicom asked Intel to make them 12 different chips for a variety of computing purposes, for an advanced calculator. But Intel did not have enough people to make these chips, so they suggested that they could put all the features into one single chip. Busicom agreed, and Intel microprocessor history was made. In another twist of events, Intel bought the chip back from Busicom for $60,000 after a few months, and Busicom soon went bankrupt without releasing a single product with the 4004 chip. 

This microprocessor chip made it possible for manufacturers to realize the dreams that they had seen of developing computers that could work on integrated chips. The 4 bit chips produced in that age are a far cry from the 64 bit chips produced today, but the technology has remained the same. This was truly the start of a revolution, and it is fair to say that our world would have never been the same, if this chip had not been produced. The history of microprocessors owes a lot to this chip in particular. 

Further Developments

From then on, Intel became synonymous with integrated circuits, and they became the custom chip providers for all computer enthusiasts in the computer industry. In April 1972, the 8008 chip was introduced, which was the first 8 bit chip ever. Another two years later the 8080 chip was released, which increased the speed of functioning and the number of instructions executed per second by a great amount. The next step was to create microcontrollers, which were literally 'computers on chips'. The 8748 microcontroller was released in 1976, and this allowed users to control events in real time and manage data at much faster speeds. 

In 1978, the 8086 microprocessor was released which was a further enhancement of the 8080 chip. This chip used a 16 bit architecture, and it was followed up by the 8088 chip in 1981. Competition was slowly catching up with Intel at this time though, so they released the 80186 and the 80286 microprocessors in 1982. This was a very important step in Intel microprocessor history and computer history as a whole, as these microprocessors were at least 3 times faster than those of competitors, and it also finally allowed the user to multitask. 

The next step was to move on to 32 bit processors, and this is how the 80386 and the 80486 came up. These processors were also known as the '386' and the '486' respectively, and they were used till the early nineties. The 386 was released in 1985, and the 486 was released in 1989. 

Intel Pentium Microprocessor

This list of Intel microprocessors brings us to the amazing 80586 processor, which is used even today, with several modifications and upgrades of course. The chip was initially a 32 bit chip with a speed of about 66 MHz, and the 64 bit processors that are available today, can clock speeds of up to 3.6 GHz. You must look at the Intel Core processors to see the real power and beauty of these devices, which are comfortably the best computer processors. The history of Intel processors has been long and winding, but it has culminated in a great offering to the world, which has changed our lives forever. You must also learn more about 32 bit vs. 64 bit processors. 

When Bob Noyce and Gordon Moore decided to start their own company and name it Intel, they had no idea how big they would actually become. Intel microprocessor history shows us that the world would have been very different without these two disgruntled men, who left the Fairchild Semiconductor Company, and brought Intel Corporation to the world.

Read more »

History of Microprocessor

A microprocessor is a single chip integrating all the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. It includes all the logical functions, data storage, timing functions and interaction with other peripheral devices. In some cases, the terms 'CPU' and 'microprocessor' are used interchangeably to denote the same device. Like every genuine engineering marvel, the microprocessor too has evolved through a series of improvements throughout the 20th century. A brief history of the device along with its functioning is described below.

Working of a Microprocessor

It is the central processing unit which coordinates all the functions of a computer. It generates timing signals, sends and receives data to and from every peripheral used inside or outside the computer. The commands required to do this are fed into the device in the form of current variations which are converted into meaningful instructions by the use of a Boolean Logic System. It divides its functions in two categories, logical functions and processing functions. The arithmetic and logical unit and the control unit handle these functions respectively. The information is communicated through a bunch of wires called buses. The address bus carries the 'address' of the location with which communication is desired while the data bus carries the data that is being exchanged.

Types of Microprocessors

There are different ways in which microprocessors are categorized. They are

• CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computers)
• RISC(Reduced Instruction Set Computers)
• VLIW(Very Long Instruction Word Computers)
• Super scalar processors

Other types of specialized processors are

• General Purpose Processor (GPP)
• Special Purpose Processor (SPP)
• Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)
• Digital Signal Processor (DSP)

History and Evolution of Microprocessors

The invention of the transistor in 1947 was a significant development in the world of technology. It could perform the function of a large component used in a computer in the early years. Shockley, Brattain and Bardeen are credited with this invention and were awarded the Nobel prize for the same. Soon it was found that the function this large component was easily performed by a group of transistors arranged on a single platform. This platform, known as the integrated chip (IC), turned out to be a very crucial achievement and brought along a revolution in the use of computers. A person named Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments was honored with the Nobel Prize for the invention of IC, which laid the foundation on which microprocessors were developed. At the same time, Robert Noyce of Fairchild made a parallel development in IC technology for which he was awarded the patent.

ICs proved beyond doubt that complex functions could be integrated on a single chip with a highly developed speed and storage capacity. Both Fairchild and Texas Instruments began the manufacture of commercial ICs in 1961. Later, complex developments in the IC led to the addition of more complex functions on a single chip. The stage was set for a single controlling circuit for all the computer functions. Finally, Intel corporation's Ted Hoff and Frederico Fagin were credited with the design of the first microprocessor. 

The work on this project began with an order from a Japanese calculator company Busicom to Intel, for building some chips for it. Hoff felt that the design could integrate a number of functions on a single chip making it feasible for providing the required functionality. This led to the design of Intel 4004, the world's first microprocessor. The next in line was the 8 bit 8008 microprocessor. It was developed by Intel in 1972 to perform complex functions in harmony with the 4004.

This was the beginning of a new era in computer applications. The use of mainframes and huge computers was scaled down to a much smaller device that was affordable to many. Earlier, their use was limited to large organizations and universities. With the advent of microprocessors, the use of computers trickled down to the common man. The next processor in line was Intel's 8080 with an 8 bit data bus and a 16 bit address bus. This was amongst the most popular microprocessors of all time. 

Very soon, the Motorola corporation developed its own 6800 in competition with the Intel's 8080. Fagin left Intel and formed his own firm Zilog. It launched a new microprocessor Z80 in 1980 that was far superior to the previous two versions. Similarly, a break off from Motorola prompted the design of 6502, a derivative of the 6800. Such attempts continued with some modifications in the base structure.

The use of microprocessors was limited to task-based operations specifically required for company projects such as the automobile sector. The concept of a 'personal computer' was still a distant dream for the world and microprocessors were yet to come into personal use. The 16 bit microprocessors started becoming a commercial sell-out in the 1980s with the first popular one being the TMS9900 of Texas Instruments. 

Intel developed the 8086 which still serves as the base model for all latest advancements in the microprocessor family. It was largely a complete processor integrating all the required features in it. 68000 by Motorola was one of the first microprocessors to develop the concept of microcoding in its instruction set. They were further developed to 32 bit architectures. Similarly, many players like Zilog, IBM and Apple were successful in getting their own products in the market. However, Intel had a commanding position in the market right through the microprocessor era. 

The 1990s saw a large-scale application of microprocessors in the personal computer applications developed by the newly formed Apple, IBM and Microsoft corporation. It witnessed a revolution in the use of computers, which by then was a household entity. 

This growth was complemented by a highly sophisticated development in the commercial use of microprocessors. In 1993, Intel brought out its 'Pentium Processor' which is one of the most popular processors in use till date. It was followed by a series of excellent processors of the Pentium family, leading into the 21st century. The latest one in commercial use is the Pentium Dual Core technology and the Xeon processor. They have opened up a whole new world of diverse applications. Supercomputers have become common, owing to this amazing development in microprocessors.

Certainly, these little chips will go down as history but will continue to rein in the future as an ingenious creation of the human mind.

Read more »

History of Macintosh Computers

Jef Raskin, a human computer interface expert from America and an employee of Apple, was the one who came up with the idea of building an affordable and easy-to-use computer. In 1979, Raskin started planning for building a team that would bring his idea into reality. He soon formed a team of Bill Atkinson, a Lisa team member, Burrell Smith, a service technician and others. Soon, they stated working on Raskin’s idea. The first Macintosh board that their team developed had a 64KB RAM, used a Motorola microprocessor and featured a black and white bitmap display.

By the end of 1980, Smith, one of the team members of the first Macintosh team, created a board that ran on a higher speed, featured a higher-capacity RAM and supported a wider display. Steve Jobs, impressed by this design, began to take interest in this project. His ideas have highly influenced the design of the final Macintosh. Jobs resigned from Apple Computers in 1985.

The following years witnessed the development of desktop publishing and other applications such as Macromedia FreeHand, Adobe Photoshop and Adobe Illustrator, which helped in the expansion of the desktop publishing market. It was also during these years that the shortfalls of Mac were exposed to the users. It did not have a hard disk drive and had little memory. In 1986, Apple came up with Macintosh Plus. It supported some excellent features like the parallel SCSI interface, a megabyte of expandable RAM and the attachment of peripheral devices. The MacPlus was produced until 1990, making it the longest-lived Macintosh.

In 1987, Apple brought about HyperCard and MultiFinder, which endowed Macintosh with multitasking features. After Macintosh II, Macintosh SE was released. The Macintosh SE supported the Snow White language and the Apple desktop bus mouse and keyboard.

Claris, a computer software company formed as a spin-off from Apple Computer in 1987, brought the Pro series to the market. Their line of products included the MacPoint Pro, MacDraw Pro and others. By the early 1990s, Claris had become immensely popular. Claris released ClarisWorks, which later came to be known as AppleWorks. 

In 1991, Macintosh came up with System 7, a 32-bit rewrite of their operating system. They soon introduced Macintosh Quadra 700 and 900, both using the Motorola 68040 processor. They also established the Apple Industrial Design Group to work on further developments in their operating system. The year 1991 witnessed the creation of the PowerBook Range by Apple. In the following year, Apple started selling their low-end Mac, Performa. In 1994, they started using the RISC PowerPC architecture developed by the alliance of Apple Computer, IBM and Motorola. Their new product line was a huge success.

Apple has always had to face fierce competition from Intel and Microsoft. After the return of Steve Jobs, Apple had a ‘no looking back’. They introduced an all-in-one Macintosh and called it iMac. It was a great success. In 1999, they came up with iBook, their first laptop computer. The Mac Mini launched in 2005, is the least expensive Mac, till today. Mac OS 9 evolved to Mac OS X that was based on Unix. Mac OS X came up in 2000. The MAC OS remains to be one of the most popular operating systems.

The glorious history of the Macintosh computers convinces us of their bright future.

Read more »